When Byzantine Emperor appealed to him, Pope Urban V sent out a call to the crowned heads of Europe. A Crusade against Turks was assembled with King Asmodeus of Savoy as leader who came with a fleet and an army. When routed by the Turks, the Balkan powers joined together and under the command of the King of Serbia attacked Turkish positions. A battle was fought in 1371, in which the Serbs and their allies were defeated and Murad annexed Macedonia. Murad now sent raiding parties even to Albania and Greece and became so powerful in the Balkans that John Palaeologus, the Byzantine Emperor at last became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan.
Shortly after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, Bulgaria declared her independence, Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, Crete united with Greece, Balkan declared war and created Albania and Montenegro, Serbia and Romania enlarged their territories. 1911-12 war with Italy resulted in the loss of Tripolitania and the Dodecanese. The Allied troops landed in Istanbul on 13th November, 1918, and established a military administration. In 1919, the French had taken Ayntab, Mar'ash and Adana, Italians landed in Antalya, and the British in Samsun and Dardaneless. The Greeks landed in Izmir on 15 May and began to advance to annex Anatolia to a greater Greece.
Hajjaj ibn Yousuf, the great Muslim viceroy of Iraq gave the governorship of Khurasan to Qutaiba ibn Muslim in 705. Qutaiba was also instructed to carry the holy war eastwards into the heart of Asia.
Qutaiba was soldier and diplomat of outstanding ability. The nucleus of his force was the Arab tribal element which had been removed to this distant frontier from Kufa and Basra, but many recruits were obtained from the native Iranian population, a large number of whom had embraced Islam and were willing to fight under Arab leadership against their hereditary enemies, nomads of Turan.
Sultan Sulaiman succeeded his father in 1520, who was the greatest of the Ottoman Sultans. He was a statesman courted by every monarch ruler, who made the Turkish Navy the mistress of the Mediterranean, and for the glory of his court, for his power and splendour, he is known to European history as Sulaiman, the Magnificent.
Tunisia also faced the problem of penetration of Europeans in 1830 and foreign influence compelled it to detach itself progressively from the Ottoman Empire. On the advice of untrustworthy businessmen of Europe, Bey involved himself into expenditure of doubtful value. To overcome financial crisis Bey had to borrow loans after loans from foreign countries and exposed Tunisia to dependency. Convention of the Bardo signed on 12 May, 1881 established a French protectorate in Tunisia. A resident general and minister was posted there. After two years Convention of La Marsa signed between resident Cambon and Bey Ali, restricted the Bey's powers--' legislative acts and Beylical decress were not valid until resident's seal had been affixed'.
Born in Hoshiarpur in 1914, Major Tufail Muhammad was commissioned in 1943 into the 16 Punjab Regiment. After a distinguished career, which included several instructional and command appointments in his own battalion and also in the Civil Armed Forces, he was posted to the East Pakistan Rifles in 1958 as a Company Commander.
From 1851 onwards, European and Ottoman merchants poured into the riverain areas of the Upper Nile, in search of ivory. Their uncontrolled interruption had two evil consequences; the disintegration of tribal society, and the extension of the slave trade to new areas. Khedive Ismail (1863-79) was ruling. British Governor General, General Gordon was appointed in 1877. Ismail was deposed and Gordon resigned in1879. Muhammad Ahmad Mehdi emerged as ruler. The reconquest, was planned and directed by Sir Herbert Kitchener, then Serdar of the Egyptian army, who recaptured Dongola province in 1898.
The force of only 7,000 men which crossed the straits was commanded by Tariq ibn Zeyad. In 711, Tariq disembarked at the foot of the mighty rock whose familiar modern name of Gibraltar distorts and abbreviates its Arabic designation of Jabal-e-Tariq. He ordered the burning of the vessels of the fleet which had brought them to Spain. Striking Westwards towards the lake or lagoon of Janda, Tariq took up a strong defensive position on the river Barbate, and awaited the march of the Gothic army from the North.
Sebuktigin succeeded to power at Ghazni in 962 and started vigorously to expand his dominion. Jayapal of Hind saw danger in the consolidation of the Kingdom of Ghazni and decided to destroy it. He invaded, but was defeated and agreed to pay an indemnity. He defaulted, took to field again and was once more defeated.
The sultanate of Zeila became a powerful Adal Empire by thirteenth century from Gulf of Aden to the present Ethiopian city of Harar. Its outstanding ruler, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (1506-1543), had succeeded in conquering a considerable portion of Ethiopia and penetrated to North reaching Kassala in 1535. Ethiopians were completely broken and the defeated King appealed to Potugal for assistance. Joint forces of Portugal and Ethiopia attacked Imam Ahmad and inflicted defeat. On the death of Imam Ahmad in 1543 the Adal Empire disintegrated.
